Inside the Middle East's water scarcity crisis
Arab nations seek solutions as farmers bear the brunt of the drought
Of the 17 most water-stressed countries in the world, 11 are in the Middle East and North Africa, making it one of the most affected regions in the world.
Over the years, a lack of fresh water resources has been compounded by climate change, population growth, poor management and — in some places — conflict. It has reached a stage where it affects the daily lives and health of millions.
As the climate crisis accelerates, water scarcity in the region home to 360 million people is expected to worsen and disrupt economic growth. A report from the World Bank found that climate-related water scarcity may lead to economic losses of up to 14 per cent of the region’s total GDP over the next 30 years.
Technological innovations in some countries and improved water-management systems are helping to soften the blow. Other countries are seeking international collaborations, developing desalination plants, encouraging sustainable agriculture as well as water-recycling programmes.
But it is widely agreed that more co-operation and state-level management is needed to prevent a major water crisis in future.
The National’s correspondents across the region spoke to farmers, citizens, officials and agritech entrepreneurs to understand the extent of the issue and where hope for change may lie.
Iraq
Millions of Iraqis face water shortages as crisis threatens life and agriculture
Farmer Saadoon Abdul-Sahib Jabr has been in the agriculture business for decades.
In that time, he has seen it all, from droughts and heavy rains to failed crops and deteriorating soil quality.
But these past few months, he said, have been particularly challenging.
Mr Jabr, 58, inherited 1,000 dunams — about 100 hectares — of land from his father in the town of Al Maimouna, in Maysan province south of Baghdad. He planted 80 dunams with wheat and barley.
This year’s season for winter grains, beginning around October and ending as late as May, got off to a very rough start for farmers, with little rain and dwindling water levels in the rivers.
“The situation was very tough,” Mr Jabr said. “The drought this year was the most severe one.”
Known in ancient times as Mesopotamia or the Land Between the Two Rivers, Iraq is said to have been the site of the biblical Garden of Eden.
Today, the UN classifies the oil-rich nation as the fifth most vulnerable country in the world to climate change. Its severe water crisis has been gradually worsening for decades, negatively affected by climate change, mismanagement and pollution.
Iraq’s two main sources of water, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which account for more than 90 per cent of the country’s freshwater reserves, have significantly declined over the years. Construction of dams and diversion of water upstream in Turkey and Iran has exacerbated the situation, leaving downstream nations like Iraq with less water.
Moreover, decades of war and conflict have damaged or completely destroyed the country's infrastructure, leading to water losses and inefficient distribution.
Salinisation of soil due to the use of salt-rich irrigation water and poor drainage is another issue affecting the productivity of the land, causing lower crop yields and food insecurity.
Millions of Iraqis have difficulty finding safe water, including more than seven million children, according to Unicef.
One of the most affected sectors by water scarcity in Iraq is agriculture, which is the main source of livelihood for at least a third of Iraqis, or 14 million of the nation’s 44 million population.
Among them is Mr Jabr, who has seven children to support.
“At some point it was impossible to pump water from the Al Btaira river, a tributary from the Tigris, for irrigation,” he said.
A few months into the winter season, he began to lose hope that he would be able to harvest anything. Just as he reconciled himself to the losses, the skies opened and rain poured down.
“It was really terrible this season, but God saved us,” he said.
Unlike previous winters, this season there has been moderate to heavy rain, including at least three storms in March.
As a result, farmers are anticipating an “abundant harvest” of wheat this season, with Minister of Water and Resources Aoun Diab telling state TV that the planting area would be expanded to 6.5 million dunams from the previously planned 2.5 million. Each season, the ministry limits how much land can be cultivated based on the availability of water.
“We are happy with these results, but despite this, what worries me is the upcoming summer,” Mr Diab said.
“There are big challenges ahead of us in summer when the temperature and evaporation increase and that may force us to reconsider the agriculture needs and focus on securing water for humans,” he said.
To alleviate acute water shortages, Turkey began increasing the water flow to the Tigris in April for a month. It agreed to release 1,500 cubic metres per second, doubling the previous volume, according to Iraq’s Water Resources Ministry.
Over the past few years, drought has forced farmers to turn to underground wells, many of which are rapidly being depleted. Many have abandoned their professions altogether, moving to cities instead.
But the lack of water affects almost everyone in Iraq.
Many people have to walk long distances to get safe drinking water, while others have to rely on unclean sources of water, leading to waterborne diseases and health problems. A lack of proper sanitation facilities contributes to the spread of diseases.
Iraq's rivers and streams have also been contaminated with industrial waste, untreated sewage and agricultural run-off, adding to health and environmental threats.
Essa Al Fayadh, general director of the Environment Ministry’s technical department, said the pollution level at the rivers is currently at 90 per cent, mainly due to sewage water.
In March, Deputy Environment Minister Jassim Al Falahi said millions of different types of pollutants were being discharged into the rivers every day.
State-run institutions, particularly municipalities and the health ministry, account for 95 per cent of the waste, he said.
In Al Maimouna, a big pipeline discharges thousands of litres of sewage into Al Btaira river every day.
“As the sewage is discharged from the pipeline it forms a large, brown plume that spreads across the surface of the water,” said Mr Jabr, whose family sometimes has to buy bottled water because the tapwater is unsafe. “The smell is overpowering and the river itself becomes murky and opaque.
“We have been waiting for the authorities to divert the sewage away from the river, but every year they say don't have enough money for the project,” he added.
Jordan
Farmers turn to strawberries and dates to use less water and maximise profits
Yacoub Miguel visited an agricultural trade fair in Dubai a decade ago looking for contacts to market his vegetable crop, but no one was interested.
“I wanted to sell cucumbers and Gulf merchants were asking me if I had strawberries,” says Mr Miguel, a Jordanian farmer who studied agricultural engineering at Jordan University.
“When I went back, I converted my farm to strawberries.”
At his four-hectare farm on the road to Amman's international airport, Mr Miguel plants half a million saplings a year. These produce 250 tonnes of large strawberries with a sweet aftertaste, mostly for export to the Gulf and Europe.
Strawberries, which have a lucrative market abroad, consume relatively little of Jordan’s meagre water supply compared with thirsty crops that many farmers still cultivate, despite pressures on the irrigation system.
The mostly desert, aid-dependent kingdom's water supply is one of the world's most challenged. Yet bananas and citrus fruits are planted in Jordan’s lowlands.
Apricots, peaches and olives are grown in the kingdom’s desert, siphoning off non-replenishable aquifers.
Farming consumes more than half of Jordan’s water, but contributes less than 5 per cent to the economy, which is modestly sized at $45 billion.
Unlike popular crops such as tomatoes, strawberries require large investment and delicate technology to reduce their need for water.
Mr Miguel buys water from owners of licensed wells. Unlike outlying areas where water theft and illegal use is rife, the wells near Amman are well monitored by the authorities.
He has poured hundreds of thousands of dollars into hydroponic irrigation, refrigeration and other infrastructure, as well as a computer system to manage the crop.
Hydroponics is a method of soilless farming, usually done in plastic houses. The technique helps save water and grow crops all year round.
Global supplies of strawberries typically dwindle by the end of September, because of natural production cycles, providing export opportunities for Jordanian strawberries, Mr Miguel says.
“Timing is important,” he says, pointing out that the plants need to be ready by April to take advantage of demand later in the year.
The strawberries are marketed under the brand Basateen Alordon (Jordan Groves). They are neither too crunchy, nor too soft.
“In a few more weeks, they will taste even better,” Mr Miguel says.
At Berlin’s Fruit Logistica Expo in February, Basateen Alordon’s stand was approached by Polish, Russian and German importers.
But the main market for the strawberries, and Jordanian produce in general, is the Gulf, with strawberry exports running at 6,000 tonnes a year.
The volumes are low compared with dates, another fruit demanded by Gulf and, lately, western customers. The fruit also consumes relatively little water.
Data from the central bank showed Jordan exported $175 million worth of fruits and nuts in the first 10 months of 2022, one of the driest seasons on record, compared with $250 million during the same period in 2020.
Date exports run at about $50 million a year and production is expanding by 15 per cent annually, according to the Jordanian Dates Association.
Businessman Amjad Tadros, who has a date farm in the Jordan Valley established by his late father, says he has not been able to grow the fruit fast enough to keep up with demand from the Gulf.
The Gulf market particularly calls for majhool, a wrinkled date that is left to dry on the palm tree, Mr Tadros says.
The date's name means “unknown” but is also widely called medjool. It is mainly grown in Israel and Palestine, although it accounts for 58 per cent of the 26,000 tonnes of dates produced in Jordan.
South Africa, Morocco, California and Saudi Arabia are also significant majhool producers.
Mr Tadros, who is a prominent journalist and a mechanical engineer, says he has been buying majhool from other farmers in the Jordan Valley, the kingdom’s main date-producing region, to send to Qatar and other Gulf markets.
But he says majhool requires specialist expertise in pollination, trimming and other aspects of its farming, as well as quality control for discerning Gulf customers.
He uses laser machines to measure the cracks in the majhool, and prices them accordingly.
“It is a very precise business,” says Mr Tadros, who leaves the technical aspects of production to specialists working on the farm.
Although production in Jordan is increasing, Mr Tadros says that Egypt is making large investments and could, in five years, carve out huge chunks of Gulf and western markets for majhool.
“Egypt is catching up,” Mr Tadros says. “We have to maintain the quality.”
Lebanon
Electricity crisis exacerbates water scarcity problem
The thick maple tree in Baalchmay, a town carved into the hills of the Mount Lebanon region, almost acts as a dividing line on the road in the lower parts of the area. Perhaps about 200 years old, the tree is so broad that it is nearly as wide as the small cars passing by.
Only metres away is a spring. It is said the proximity of the water nearby allowed the maple tree and its thick branches to grow to such an extent, and survive previous conflicts that hit the area.
“In the past, the story goes that if you got a shovel and were just digging a little bit, water would come from the ground. That’s how rich the area was with water,” said Adham Al Danaf, the mayor of Baalchmay, a town of about 4,500 Lebanese residents and up to 3,000 refugees.
“What we always say about the village is that it’s like the human body,” added Jamil Al Danaf, a water specialist at the municipality.
“No matter where you take a small pin and poke it, blood comes out — that’s what water is in Baalchmay. Where ever you dig, you’re going to find water.”
But for the residents of the town, these anecdotes belie the current water crisis they face. In an area supposedly blessed with an abundance of water beneath the soil, why do the people of Baalchmay suffer — like many places in Lebanon — from a severe lack of water?
In Baalchmay, as is the case in much of the country, the lack of electricity is to blame. Lebanon’s dilapidated energy infrastructure, heavily damaged in the 1975-1990 Civil War, has for decades limped on, unable to supply the amount of electricity that is demanded.
But since the start of the economic crisis in 2019, described by the World Bank as one of the worst in modern history, the problem has been become more acute. State electricity typically is only available for a few hours a day, if that. Those who can afford it have to turn to expensive diesel-guzzling private generators.
“It’s linked directly to the electricity issue,” said the mayor. “You know the electricity problem in Lebanon. Whenever we don’t have electricity, we don’t have water.”
According to the mayor, about seven years ago public water would be pumped into a giant water tanker that sits at the top the village before being distributed among residents about twice a week. Today, this only happens once every other month.
Last summer, Unicef warned that the health of millions in Lebanon, a country of about six million, was as at risk because of its water crisis.
The UN agency said state providers were unable to supply enough water — “largely as a result of the power crisis” — but also because soaring inflation means it is prohibitively expensive to maintain infrastructure and afford parts.
In Baalchmay, residents have been forced to adapt. Typically they buy water from private sources but that is becoming increasingly difficult as Lebanon’s economic crisis tightens its grip.
“It’s not a well-off municipality. People can barely get by covering their other needs, let alone water,” the mayor said.
Resident Jamila Abi Merched has had to find ways to make the limited water she gets stretch further.
“To save water, I have used the water in many ways.” For example, the water she uses to do the laundry is also used to clean the floors of her home.
“I have no trust in any of the water quality that is coming. I wash the vegetables and I’m very worried about the water. But you don’t have a choice,” she said.
Her husband said many people in the town have been forced to cut down on showers — perhaps only showering once every four or five days now.
Born and raised in Baalchmay, Mr Abi Merched said the water situation has been degenerating steadily since 1995.
“Now things are going backwards not forwards,” he said.
In the best scenario, they get one hour of government water every 15 days — a rarity. To be able to live a “fair life”, Mr Abi Merched said the family would have to pay up to 2 million Lebanese pounds ($133) a week to private water suppliers. Instead, they have installed a rainwater collection system on the roof.
The town, however, may have a solution. A number of years ago, a well was built further down the hill to support Baalchmay. But with soaring fuel costs, limited electricity and the wider economic crisis, it has never been fully in operation.
The mayor had a private generator installed using his own money and donations from the local community but it has had limited effect so far because of the costs involved.
According to the mayor, it would take up the municipality's entire budget for the month to pay for the diesel needed to run the generator to provide sufficient water for the area — and that’s not accounting for maintenance and other related costs.
But now the town believes it has found an “alternative” solution: solar energy. It has purchased 230 solar panels using funding from the Japanese embassy and with support from the Environment Academy — a project at the American University of Beirut. The Environment Academy worked with experts, a team from the local community and the municipality to find the solution.
By installing the solar panels next to the well, it is hoped the resulting electricity will be sufficient to pump the water and supply the town.
The project is expected to get started in the coming months, and to become the town's main water source.
The concept has been replicated elsewhere, again with the support of the Environment Academy. In Bedghane, a village south-east of Beirut with a population of about 2,000, and where the last remnants of winter can still be seen, a wall of solar panels overlooks the valley.
The village previously suffered from the same water supply issues that plague much of Lebanon but today “around 90 per cent of water problems [have been] fixed because of the solar panels”, said Shayekh Raydan Shayya, who lives in Bedghane.yya, who lives in Bedghane.
Residents say the installation of the solar panels has helped alleviate some of the problems they face amid the devastating economic crisis.
But, for now, these are very localised solutions in two relatively small and cohesive populations.
For most of the country, water shortages are just one of a litany of problems people are encountering every day.
“People are barely managing,” said Baalchmay's mayor. “They are managing their lives in order to survive in a difficult situation.”
Egypt
Soil erosion along sea coast of Egypt's Nile Delta threatens loss of 550-year-old fort
On the shores of the Nile, near where the river meets its end from the depths of Africa to the coast of the Mediterranean, is a 15th-century fort at risk of being lost to the water forever.
Located in the coastal town of Rosetta, on the north-western edge of Egypt’s Nile Delta, it may take years or even decades for the fort built during the reign of the Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay to join the many other structures around it that were swallowed by the sea.
But the danger is real and, for now, only electrical pumps working round-the-clock to keep seawater out of Fort Julien's grounds are protecting it from being overcome by the depths.
Should the pumps break down or suffer a power cut, the fort is almost instantly inundated with knee-deep water seeping into the lower sections of the fort that once stood on the highest ground in the surrounding area.
Yet the pumps can do little to stop areas of the fort walls from going mouldy from sustained wetness or some of the more vulnerable walls showing large water stains.
“Homes have disappeared. An old lighthouse, too, and a mosque,” lamented Khamees Al Qut, a 58-year-old father of five, who lives in the dusty and ramshackle village of Izbat Burj Rasheed.
The village, which sits close to both the Nile and the sea on the outskirts of Rosetta — also known as Rasheed — is where most of the damage from shoreline erosion can be found.
“You can see some of the buildings the sea swallowed if you are in a boat out there,” he said, pointing to the sea. Large buoys have been placed in the water to warn fishing vessels against sailing too close to sunken buildings whose tops are close to the surface.
It is partially built with stones hauled from nearby temples and other structures dating back to the ancient Egyptian and Ptolemaic eras, a practice not uncommon in post-Pharaonic Egypt.
The stones included the world famous and tablet-like Rosetta Stone, whose identical texts in Demotic, Greek and hieroglyphics made it possible to decipher hieroglyphics, the language spoken in ancient Egypt’s royal palaces and temples, and establish the science of Egyptology.
An economically prosperous town that’s a 40-minute drive away from Alexandria, Rosetta has the unenviable distinction of being one of the world’s most affected spots by global warming.
It is also a place whose global warming woes have been deepened by the construction more than a half century ago on the Nile of the Aswan High Dam in southern Egypt and before it the nearby Aswan reservoir in 1902.
The Soviet-built dam has, since its completion in 1970, regulated the river’s flow downstream and spared Egypt the destruction caused by flooding. It has significantly increased farmland, helping to feed the country’s rapidly growing population that stands at about 105 million.
But along with these key benefits, the dam also denied the Nile Delta the wealth of sediment that has, since time immemorial, renewed the soil of the nation’s breadbasket in the Nile valley and Delta. In the case of Rosetta, the reduction in the sediment accelerated the shoreline erosion caused by the advancing seawater. That coincided with the Nile also falling victim to climate change.
“The Nile has been affected by climate change in two extremes: drought and flooding,” said Mohammed Mahmoud, director of the Middle East Institute’s climate and water programme.
“Drought conditions have caused less water to be generated from the headwaters of the Blue and White Niles because of less precipitation and snowpack on the [Ethiopian] highlands. In addition, sea level rise in the Mediterranean has caused seawater to continue encroaching into the Nile Delta in Egypt, putting at risk residential areas and the primary source of Egypt’s agricultural output (the coastal Nile Delta),” he said.
Today, the telltale signs of a place in distress are difficult to miss in Rosetta and its immediate vicinity.
Row after row of foreboding concrete barriers are placed close to the shore at the point where the river meets the Mediterranean. Installed in the 1980s and 1990s, their function is to stop, or at least slow, the process of coastal erosion as a result of the advancing sea.
A large swathe of coastal land sits barren, seemingly no longer fit for farming because of the encroaching sea salt. An isolated army outpost at the tip of the coast is evidence of Egypt’s efforts to combat the use of its Mediterranean shores by illegal migrants seeking to cross to Europe.
A study published last August in Egypt’s Alexandria Engineering Journal showed the Rosetta shoreline retreated by 4.4km at its eastern side and 5.8km at the western side between 1900 and 1991.
The study said the construction of Aswan High Dam and the reservoir led to a dramatic fall in the amount of sediment reaching the Nile Delta; from more than 120 million tonnes per year to almost zero today.
It also warned that, without additional protection, the Rosetta promontory would recede at an even faster rate, taking out some of the most fertile farmlands in mostly desert Egypt.
The loss of farmlands in the Delta can only deepen alarm in Egypt, which is already concerned that a massive hydroelectric dam being built by Ethiopia on the Nile could reduce its share of the river’s water. That, it claims, would wipe out hundreds of thousands of agricultural jobs and disrupt the nation’s delicate food balance.
Already importing 50 per cent of what its rapidly growing population eats, Egypt could suffer the loss of $51 billion worth of agricultural GDP if its water share is cut, according to a 2021 study published in the periodical Environmental Research Letters.
It would also add 11 per cent to its unemployment rate — officially 7 per cent now — and an overall GDP reduction by 8 per cent, according to the study.
However, the threat posed to Rosetta by coast erosion and the possible cut in Egypt’s share of the Nile water — on which the nation depends for almost all its freshwater needs — does little to conceal the prosperity and liveliness of the town of 60,000.
On one recent afternoon, the town’s colourful outdoor food market was packed with shoppers, snapping up goods sold at half what they cost in Cairo, about 250km to south-east. Fish farms dot the stretch of the Nile snaking through the city. On the east bank stand high-rise residential buildings. The seafront boulevard is peppered with slender date palms and marinas for Nile ferries.
Dry docks a short distance away from the town centre are working at near capacity building luxury yachts for the use of holidaymakers at Egypt’s popular Red Sea resorts.
Under the watchful eye of the soldiers manning the walls of their coastal outpost, a dozen men could be seen quietly angling while sitting on top of the line of concrete barriers running parallel to the shore. Some of them travel 60km from Alexandria to fish in Rosetta, which enjoys a reputation for the richness of its fish at the Nile-Mediterranean confluence point.
“The sea is choppy today and the wind is too strong” said angler Mahmoud Baha, a 37-year-old father of two, who makes a living as an interior decorator.
“I am going to try to see what I can catch in the water between the barriers where the fish may be hiding.”
A young man walks across cracked and dried up soil at the Hawizeh marshes in October 2022. AFP
A young man walks across cracked and dried up soil at the Hawizeh marshes in October 2022. AFP
A shepherd gathers his sheep on the edge of Iraq's central city of Najaf in October 2022. AFP
A shepherd gathers his sheep on the edge of Iraq's central city of Najaf in October 2022. AFP
A buffalo swims near fishing boats in Iraq's receding southern marshes of Chibayish in August 2022. AFP
A buffalo swims near fishing boats in Iraq's receding southern marshes of Chibayish in August 2022. AFP
Tomato crops are left to die in the hot sun due to the lack of sufficient water for irrigation in Amman in April 2021. AFP
Tomato crops are left to die in the hot sun due to the lack of sufficient water for irrigation in Amman in April 2021. AFP
A damaged road along what used to be the shoreline of the Dead Sea in Jordan, in April 2021. Getty Images
A damaged road along what used to be the shoreline of the Dead Sea in Jordan, in April 2021. Getty Images
A boy carries a crate of courgettes at a farm in Bekaa Valley, Lebanon in July 2019. Getty Images
A boy carries a crate of courgettes at a farm in Bekaa Valley, Lebanon in July 2019. Getty Images
The well the town of Baalchmay plans to install solar panels near. Jamie Prentis / The National
The well the town of Baalchmay plans to install solar panels near. Jamie Prentis / The National
Satellite view of Cairo, Egypt, and the valley of the Nile River in 2011. Getty Images
Satellite view of Cairo, Egypt, and the valley of the Nile River in 2011. Getty Images
A farmer sows seeds in a field in Sharm El Shaik
A farmer sows seeds in a field in Sharm El Shaik
The Mujib Dam reservoir, the main water supply to Amman. AFP
The Mujib Dam reservoir, the main water supply to Amman. AFP